by Chinatsu Kitamura

Bilingualism is to be able to use two languages. In generally, bilingual education started Montreal in Canada, 1965. It is goal which assimilates to a majority language community in socially and culturally. There are two ways, “submersion” and “immersion”. Submersion is a form aiming at assimilation. This is very negative to use two languages and throw the people into the common class of a majority language suddenly without special education. And also, the tendency seems around the area which a lot of immigrants live. The problem is to increase the student to have trouble with. On the other hand, immersion is to educate the two languages with using two languages as an object of using the majority language. And finally, it aims to use two languages at once. Thus, although there was the method of various educations in bilingualism, bilingual education was not worked like today.

For example, in 1960s, a lot of Hispanic-American live in Texas. In fact, a half of people can’t read and write or educate within 5 years. And also, in California, a half student dropout before 8 grades. Therefore, there are miserable situation in the United States then. Soon, bilingual education became federal law. On the background, it involved in the civil rights movement in 1960s. The people who recommend the bilingual education are representatives from New York, California and Texas, for instance, John. F. Kennedy and Lyndon Baines Johnson. In Civil Rights Acts in 1964 apply that “if state discriminate the other people by reasons of race, homeland and so on, federal government prohibit all financial support.” Moreover, by the bilingual teaching methods in 1974, bilingual education was established and the Hispanic children who become the object increased in number rapidly. However, Bilingual education criticized because the actual conditions of bilingual education maintain Hispanic culture. And it was pointed that it was only a thing social and for Hispanic immigration to realize political and economical ambition. Finally, it lost support of the nation. In this way, the bilingual education which lost support became a target of criticism according to English official language movement which will start in 1981, and it was abolished in California in 1986.

Thus, bilingual education have a lot of problem. Although the problem cannot to solve easily in the world which live a variety of species close together, the bilingual education is spreading in the world while overcoming many difficulties. I feel that it is never meaningless to study over languages including English now when the world is being connected more closely.

Reference

JACET bilingualism kenkyuukai. 2003. Nihon no bilingual kyouiku gakkou no zirei kara manabu (Bilingual education in Japan. Study from case of school.)Tokyo sanshuusya

Toshihiro,Yoshioka. America ni okeru bilingual kyouiku to eigo kouyouka no zehiron (Bilingual education and argument against official language in English in United States) http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/cg/ir/college/bulletin/Vol.21-3/04YoshikawaToshihiro.pdf

by Tomotaka Isono

I want to write about the topic which is talked with my classmate in the class. The topic is why we see hostesses as dirty or shameful job, but, on the other hand, we see Geisha as Japanese traditional culture. Are both of them something same? What is the diference between hostess and Geisha? I watched the movie “SAYURI ~Memories of a Geisha” to know about Geisha. (This story is about Geisha girl before WW2.)

First, I mention the common thing. Both of them talk and drink with their customer, sing a song and dance, and sometimes they play games. Thus, business is very similar. Is the diference only clothes (Geisha: Japanese kimono, Hostess: dress)? So why does hostess be seem as dirty job?

You can know the big difference when you learn about Geisha for the first time. Of course, Geisha is similar occupation with hostess. However, if you want to be geisha, you have to go to Okiya (置屋; a Geisha house), and receive hard training from youth. (Once, poor family sell their girl to Okiya and get money.) These apprentice Geisha are called Geiko (芸妓) in Tokyo, Maiko (舞妓) in Kyoto. Everyday they do housework, take care of senior Geisha, practice of singing and dancing. Moreover they have to obey the severe rules for modern girls; for example, they can’t go to convenience store, or can’t go to Karaoke, bowling something like that. Finally They become Geisha in severe rules and environments.  I think people seem them as great culture because these severe process to Geisha. And geisha’s patience and perseverance are also Japanese traditional virtue.

On the contrary, anyone who want to be hostess can become as soon as possible regardless of good singing or dancing. And illegal foreign hostess come to Japan, hard work like indentured servitude, and to force to play sex with customer etc., many factor makes hostess job minus images to people.  This is a result which the owner and government could not help them by rule or something like that. Many of them force to work as sex workers.

So, I think we should  protect them by establishing more severe rules for owners and customers. And also they should obey the rules like Geisha. We should know about hostess and Geisha, especially Geisha system and Hostess problem.

References

Rob Marshall, “SAYURI~Memories of Geisha~”, SPE, 2005 (Movie)

by Ryoko Yorifuji

Australia is what is called immigrants’ country. But, is Australia really multicultural state? I think about the problem.

First, White from the UK or Irish immigrated to Australia in 1780s. At the same time they removed Aborigines. Since White continued to treat cruelly to Aborigines. Moreover White came out with White Australia Policy, and they tried to exclude colored. These days, many Chinese workers immigrated to Australia. They worked low wages, so employers used them. Then White workers lost their works because their wages were higher than Chineses’. So White’s antipathy to them got higher and exploded. As a result, the policy was realized. But, the policy was withdrawn and many colored immigrated to Australia. Finally, Australia advanced toward multiculturalism.

Second, indeed, many immigrants live in Australia. But, I think Australia is not multiculturalism. A definition of multiculturalism is “Various ethnics, races and levels save their originality, and each positively approve and coexist.” But in Australia, people mainly make group each race in school or region. White are always with White, Asian are always with Asian. Moreover, sometimes such a thing is heard “Why don’t immigrants speak English? They live in Australia, not their hometown.” This is not coexistence, much less respect for each other. But if not White people completely speak English, play Australian sports and master Australian traditional, they are not admitted to be Australian. Immigrants are immigrants forever, even if Australia is multicultural state.

That was why, many immigrants exist in there but they are not equal. Recently many riots occur in Australia. The riots are happened by White or immigrants. I think these facts are a symbol of discrimination: a part of White or White immigrants’ truly feel. Why do they happen to such a thing? To tell the truth, most participants of riots are young men. They vent their anger by violence or their worry about unemployment turns on others. In 2009, many Indian students in Australia were attacked by Australian. The cause is that many Indian lived in Sydney or Melbourne, and they occupied job in there. So, Australian felt hostile toward Indian, a part of the young happened to riots. This retribution was occurred by Indian.

From this riot, the realization of multiculturalism is difficult. And Australia is not truly multicultural state. But, even if we say “Let’s respect for each other”, we mentally put off. But such a case will be happen around the world. So, we should think how do multiculturalism realize in order to our future.

Reference

Australian multiculturalism www.clair.or.jp/j/forum/c_report/pdf/358.pdf

Globalization and multiculturalism www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/lcs/…/RitsIILCS_18.3pp.3-5Nishikawa.pdf

by Yuuki Tasiro

Nowadays, the Japanese government concluded FTA with the Philippines. This treaty made it possible for Philippine to work as nurses in Japan. I was so surprised to hear this news because I didn’t think that the Japanese government didn’t want to receive many migrants. But, the worker’s rate has been reducing by the declining number of children in japan and the number of elders is also increasing. Therefore, especially, the field of medical care needs a lot of worker because these elders need it. So I wanted to evaluate the decision and was interested in this treaty.

This treaty was concluded in 2000. Since this year, the reception of Philippine nurses and candidates started¹. And over 500 people came to Japan as foreign nurses from now². But I knew that there are a lot of problems in the treaty. Firstly, the condition of reception is quite strict. For example, they should pass national examination of nurse less than three years if they hope to go on working in Japan³. As a result, only 10 % people could pass it⁴. I think it is so difficult for foreign people to pass it. However, I also thought it is natural because this work is related with people’s life. Besides, the cost for reception is also matter. It is said that to receive one candidate cost over 5 million yen⁵. They have to study Japanese and work in hospital before the examination. Of course, their educational costs are paid from our tax. For example, 4 thousand and 2 hundred yen paid for this system in two years⁶. I guess that if the low number of successful candidates continue, the expense will be just wasted.

So, firstly I thought this system is so great, but now, I came up with few problems to a problem. I can understand that we have to prepare a lot of money to start the new project, however, if these expense will be only waste money, we can say the project is useless. So I think this system should be more efficiency.

References

¹²³ Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/bunya/koyou/other22/

⁴⁵Sankei newspaper. 2012.3.26 http://sankei.jp.msn.com/life/news/120326/trd12032619460015-n1.htm

⁶agora-web.jp 外国人看護師：なぜ実習が先で国家試験が後なのか <http://agora-web.jp/archives/1345735.html>

by Momoyo Tanaka

Now, sham marriage is a big problem in Japan.  In May 9^th 2012, Filipina hostesses and Japanese men were arrested in Tokyo for suspected sham marriage.  In 2010, 5,212 Filipina women and Japanese men couple got married.  This is the second largest amount in the world next to China.  However, 40.5% of them were divorced.  Probably, some divorces were related to sham marriage.  Then, what is the background of the sham marriage problems?  There are two reasons that Filipina hostesses get sham marriage: money and visa.

First, Filipina hostesses need money.  Because brokers arrange for visas, travels, and job placement and lend some money when they came to Japan, hostesses need to return it at high interest.  Also, hostesses were robbed of their passport by brokers to prevent escaping.  They cannot escape from and change the club where they work.  Moreover, hostesses’ wages are low because brokers exploit them.  So, a lot of Filipina hostesses get married to Japanese men, not in love, because of money, like hostesses in the video named “Filipina hostess”.

After that, there is a problem of the visa.  When Filipina women came to Japan to work as hostess, they need an entertainer visa.  Once Filipino can get a visa easily, but in 2005, the U.S criticized Japan as the country that allows sex-trafficked.  So, Japan changed the condition to get visa strictly.  It becomes very difficult to get a visa because it takes 2 years of training or internship.  The number of Filipina hostesses dropped 90%, from 82,471 to 8,607 in 2006, and there become a lot of illegal immigrants.  But if they get married, they can get a marriage visa. Therefore, some Filipina hostesses get married to Japanese men to motive to get marriage visa, and to continue to live in Japan legally.

In conclusion, to get money and a visa, a lot of Filipina hostesses get sham marriage to Japanese men.  However, not every Filipina hostesses get sham marriage.  Such situation causes discrimination against not only legal Filipina and Japanese couples, but also every Filipino.  Thus, sham marriage between Filipina hostesses and Japanese men is a very big problem in Japan now.

References

¹ The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. 2010.“Government’s Statistics” May 18, 2012 http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/List.do?lid=000001082331

² “Uramono News”. May 18, 2012 http://uramono.org/japannews/1532.html

³ “Filipina Hostess on Vimeo”. May 18, 2012 http://vimeo.com/9804921

⁴ Lecture slides for class 6 (Filipinas in Japan) by Prof. Robert Moorehead

by Mari Sunagawa

There are a lot of undocumented migrants who work as hostesses in Japan. Most of them have something to do with middleman brokers. Some vicious middleman brokers forgery migrant’s visa and take their passports. Then, they make migrants enter into Japan illegally in order to make a profit. Migrants have to work hard at certain place even though the condition is terrible. If they have formal documents, they would call police to improve their condition of work. However, they don’t want to visit the police because they are undocumented migrants. They are afraid of being deported from the host country. This is one of the reasons why the number of vicious middleman brokers doesn’t decrease.

Undocumented migrants or foreign people who commit a crime are forced to leave Japan. The document for stay is not valid for long time. Many documents are valid for less than 3 years. Unless migrants have their documents of expiration, they cannot stay in host country. In May, 2003, in Japan, 1040 undocumented migrants were exposed. The women among them worked at bar of hostess. Most of them came with middleman brokers. The foreign people caught by government are sent to the center for undocumented immigrants. After the preparation of their deporting is arranged, they must go to home country. The home country is the place of one’s nationalities.

The situation of people who have left the host country is worse than in host country. They had decided to be migrants in foreign country because they cannot find the job in their homeland. When they return there, favorable job must not exist. The migrants might send a remittance to their family. Many people in poor country cannot make a living without remittances. In such country, middleman brokers search and find their targets.

The system of deporting undocumented immigrants does not solve the problem. Some people insist that the system of deporting should be stricter for keep the public order in domestic. They think undocumented migrants cause matters and bring social disorder. Certainly, increasing of undocumented migrants should be prevented. However, the system of deporting is not effective. Migrant’s fear of it let middleman brokers do as they want. Japan should extend the range of giving documents. Migrants can have their documents so they call police when they are in trouble. Therefore, the social order will be kept.

Reference

Miyuki Matsushima. 2003. Nyukokukanrikyoku no shigoto (The job of immigration office). Tokyo:Sanshusya

by Megumi Shishido

When we hear the word “hostess,” I think most of us will not have a very good impression. It’s because the work is seen as a dark role. Many Filipinas come to Japan for living and sending money to their families and are working as hostesses. Before, they came to Japan on entertainment visas which show that they were singers or dancers. However, the immigration inspection was made a strict because the Department of State had criticized a “Philippine pub” in Japan in 2004. Coming to Japan on entertainment visas dropped and fake marriages are increasing. The way is illegal. For example, a Filipina met a Japanese broker and contracted him to work at the monthly income of 80,000 yen for two years. She did fake marriages with a Japanese man. She began to work as a hostess, the broker made up a pretext for a quarrel and deducted from her salary in advance. However, Filipinas want jobs in Japan because wages of Japan is higher than these of the Philippines.

What do we think this problem? I think about happiness for Filipina. Filipina don’t have enough money to care for her family and can’t get the money in the Philippines. However, brokers should be suppressed and we should choose legal ways. Then, we should start the other visa for the entertainment visa. The idea is at first and we mentioned in class. However, I doubt the realizability, especially the side of money. Second idea may be an extreme argument. The biggest problems are economic difficulties and internal gap in Philippine. These will spread by globalization. If the world didn’t globalize, these would not spread and Filipinos would not feel much economic difficulties. I think that it is trouble that problems which had been internal spread over abroad. So, people in Philippine should look at internal things and forget the globalization.

I can’t understand Filipinas as hostesses enough because I haven’t worked as hostesses and am cared. The gap is intolerable. I hope they can live to pursue happiness.

References

Sankei News. “Ex-representative had been wanted internationally of NPO was arrested on suspicion of employing Filipinas who have short-term visa.” [http://sankei.jp.msn.com/affairs/news/120517/crm12051712400009-n1.htm] 2012.5.17

Sankei News. “A 29 years old Filipina forced a joint suicide because of night work, child rearing, etc.” [http://news.livedoor.com/article/detail/6490672/] 2012.4.21

Kobe Shinbun. “It becomes difficult for Filipinos to get entertainment visas. Fake marriages are increasing.” [http://www.kobe-np.co.jp/news/shakai/0004977547.shtml]

Shakai Jitsujo- Data Zuroku. “The Internal local gap of Asian countries” [http://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/honkawa/8400.html] 2004.8.3

by Koki Shiozaki

Many Philippines immigrates in japan is to earn the money.  Working in Japan is the way to become rich. They have a dream of being the kind of  person. To come true their dream, they entered a  company which assists them to go and  work in Japan. Almost all of them are from poorer parts of region in Philippines. It cost so expensive them that they can’t pay for. So they owe their promotion company to the cost, and that is supposed  to pay back afterwards if they get a job in Japan.  And as they have to pay back to their company from small salary,  therefore, they can get little money. It forced  them to pay from 30 percent  to 50 percent of their salary or more than 50 percent.

In 2006, it is hard for Philippines to get a visa because of revising the law. And in order to stay long in Japan, Philippines pretend to be married  with Japanese person. As a result of this, illegal stay in japan has been increasing. In 2009, a representative examiner of  immigrants working at Narita airport was arrested by letting Philippines immigrate in japan illegally instead of receiving a lot of money from them. This is not good things. Revising the law results in new issues.

Background of being hard to get the visa, America pointed out Japan accepted the human trafficking, especially sex trafficking. So, Japan revised the law. But founding the new law to restrict immigrants might bring about other problems. Philippines pub might come to be hotbed for an organized group of gangsters to get  money. Japan is the destination country to earn money from across Asia. I understand  a lot of immigrants are in Japan. So, to make a new system is important. I think making hostess visa have the same effect on Philippines with the government. I think the government may as well enable Philippines to get other job visa. If Philippines get other job visa, they work for other job and Philippines women who work for the pub will relatively decrease in Japan.

Reference

Philippines Pub *http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A3%E3%83%AA%E3%83%94%E3%83%B3%E3%83%91%E3%83%96  5/20

Sex Trafficking Study of Filipino Hostesses in Japan *http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kjd2u03vUgs 5/20

A monologue by a writer, Ichiro Kubo *http://kubo-ichiro.at.webry.info/200912/article_5.html  5/20

by Natsuki Oshiro

In this article, I’ll write about bilingualism. Especially, I want to take up about children who emigrate to foreign country, or those who use both Japanese and foreign language in various situations. As growing Japanese internationalization, the number of those children is growing.

Many those children touch on foreign culture, and master foreign language, and they will play active parts on the international stage.

However, it is serious that the language study problem of children. In the intercultural situation, they must keep on learning with having mental stresses. Learning language is not merely linguistic problem, but also includes learner’s identity problems. In the aspect of habit, it needs them to assimilate the culture and community that the language speakers are. And those things bring about alteration in learner’s identity. Like that, learning language affects learner’s identity.

According to “America de sodatsu Nihonno kodomotachi” (Japanese children in America) (written by Masami Chinen), in the survey for 60 of Japanese children who were born in America, the author asked them ”Do you think you are Japanese?”. As a result, it became clear that they have identity that not even “Japanese” even ”American”. Having imperfect identity leads to “home-less-ness”, that they cannot depend on anywhere. Because they don’t have clear sense of belonging as Japanese or the other country nation, in many cases they cannot find out their places to call their own.

However, there is the place that they can feel sense of belonging. It is an extra curricular Japanese school (Saturday school). In their Saturday school, there are many friends who have similar worries; that is to say they are in the circumstance that are bilingual and dual cultural. The sense of belonging leads to their sense of unity as a group.

But the sense of belonging is not as Japanese, but the group that “bilingual and dual cultural”. However that may be, I think Saturday schools help them forming their identity.

Important factor for parents from Japan, is how their children can master foreign language efficiently. And for parents who live abroad for a long time, it is important that their children can preserve their Japanese skill. Like these things, a lot of parents worry about language problems. However mastering of language has relation to mental factor and social factor closely. So in order to support children’s language study, it is important for parents not only language part, but also considering total situation that their children are.

≪Reference≫

Hiroko Kataoka, Gunei Sato, 2008. Amerika de sodatsu nihon no Kodomo-Bilingual no hikari to kage (Japanese children in America-light and shade of bilingual). Tokyo:Akashi syoten